通霄發電廠二期 M501JAC 燃氣渦輪機 NBEP 管線工程最佳化：先進冷作彎管三合一工法之技術與力學評估 (Engineering Optimization of NBEP Piping for the M501JAC Gas Turbine in Tongxiao Phase II Project: Technical and Mechanical Evaluation of the Advanced 3-in-1 Cold Bending Methodology)

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摘要 / Abstract

本研究旨在針對台灣電力公司「通霄發電廠第二期更新改建計畫」中，核心主發電設備——三菱電力 (Mitsubishi Power) M501JAC 燃氣渦輪機，進行深度的技術與工程力學剖析。This study aims to conduct an in-depth technical and engineering mechanics analysis of the core main power generation equipment—the Mitsubishi Power M501JAC gas turbine—in the Taiwan Power Company’s “Tongxiao Power Plant Phase II Renewal Project”.

研究聚焦於該機組之非鍋爐外部管線 (Non-Boiler External Piping, NBEP) 系統，探討其與先進「冷作彎管三合一管線工法」（涵蓋 CNC 連續冷作彎管、IH-PBHT 感應加熱彎後熱處理、數位履歷追溯）整合後所帶來的工程與力學綜合效益1。 本分析特別依據 2026 年版 ASME B31J 規範之三維應力強度因子 (Stress Intensification Factor, SIF) 解耦理論，嚴謹論證中大管徑 (8″~2.5″) 採用 3D 冷作彎管，以及小管徑 (2″ 含以下) 採用 5D 冷作彎管的幾何最佳化配置策略2。The research focuses on the unit’s Non-Boiler External Piping (NBEP) system, exploring the comprehensive engineering and mechanical benefits brought by its integration with the advanced “3-in-1 Cold Bending Piping Methodology” (covering continuous CNC cold bending, IH-PBHT induction heating post-bending heat treatment, and digital traceability)1.Based on the 3D Stress Intensification Factor (SIF) decoupling theory of the 2026 edition of the ASME B31J code, this analysis rigorously demonstrates the geometric optimization configuration strategy of using 3D cold bends for medium-to-large pipe diameters (8″~2.5″) and 5D cold bends for small pipe diameters (2″ and below)2.

透過流體動力學、材料冶金學與配管應力分析的跨領域探討，證實此項技術整合不僅能徹底消除傳統 1.5D 銲接彎頭衍生的第四型潛變破裂 (Type IV Creep Cracking) 與流體加速腐蝕 (FAC) 之致命風險，更能顯著提升現代燃氣複循環發電廠 (Combined Cycle Power Plant, CCPP) 於頻繁負載跟隨 (Load-following) 運轉下的結構完整性與全生命週期之營運可靠度2。此研究成果將為氫能混燒世代的電力基礎建設，提供具備高度前瞻性的學術與實務參考5。 Through interdisciplinary discussions covering fluid dynamics, material metallurgy, and piping stress analysis, it is verified that this technological integration not only completely eliminates the fatal risks of Type IV Creep Cracking and Flow-Accelerated Corrosion (FAC) derived from traditional 1.5D welded elbows, but also significantly enhances the structural integrity and full-life-cycle operational reliability of modern Combined Cycle Power Plants (CCPP) under frequent load-following operations2.These research findings will provide highly forward-looking academic and practical references for power infrastructure in the hydrogen co-firing generation5.

一、 緒論 / 1. Introduction

1.1 研究背景與通霄發電廠二期計畫之戰略意義 / 1.1 Research Background and Strategic Significance of Tongxiao Phase II Project

隨著全球氣候變遷加劇與淨零碳排政策的持續推進，台灣電力系統正經歷從傳統高碳排燃煤發電向低碳燃氣及再生能源轉型的結構性重塑。位於苗栗縣通霄鎮海濱的通霄發電廠，自建廠以來即為台灣中北部電力供應之關鍵樞紐7。因應既有 4 號及 5 號機組於 2025 年屆齡除役，台灣電力公司正式啟動「通霄電廠第二期更新改建計畫」，預計利用廠內除役拆除後之空地及剩餘空間（約 10 至 13 公頃腹地），新建 5 部總裝置容量約 2,833 MW（每部機組淨裝置容量約 56.66 萬瓩）的一對一單軸式燃氣複循環發電機組1。 With the intensification of global climate change and the continuous advancement of net-zero carbon emission policies, Taiwan’s power system is undergoing a structural reshaping from traditional high-carbon coal-fired power generation to low-carbon gas-fired and renewable energy. Located on the coast of Tongxiao Township, Miaoli County, the Tongxiao Power Plant has been a key hub for power supply in central and northern Taiwan since its establishment7.In response to the decommissioning of the existing Units 4 and 5 at the end of their service life in 2025, the Taiwan Power Company has officially launched the “Tongxiao Power Plant Phase II Renewal Project”. It is expected to utilize the cleared land and remaining space within the plant (an area of about 10 to 13 hectares) to build five 1-on-1 single-shaft gas-fired combined cycle generating units with a total installed capacity of approximately 2,833 MW (net installed capacity of about 566.6 MW per unit)1.

本計畫主發電設備之統包工程已由日商三菱電力株式會社 (Mitsubishi Power) 與中鼎工程集團 (CTCI) 共同承攬，並於 2026 年初正式進入實質建造階段，目標於 2031 年全面完工商轉10。為達成合約規範中極為嚴苛之效能指標（即淨廠熱效率達 61.51% 以上 LHV、淨廠熱耗率低至 5,852 kJ/kWh），計畫選用了當今全球市場上熱效率最高之發電用重責型 (Heavy Duty) 三菱 M501JAC 燃氣渦輪機1。伴隨太陽光電與離岸風電等再生能源於電網中佔比的顯著提升，M501JAC 等大型 CCPP 機組必須承擔頻繁的升降載與起停 (Two-shifting) 任務以彌補綠能的間歇性。此一運轉模式，無疑對全廠的高溫、高壓管線系統帶來了極端的熱疲勞與流固耦合 (Fluid-Structure Interaction, FSI) 挑戰2。 The turnkey engineering procurement construction (EPC) contract for the main power generation equipment has been jointly awarded to Japan’s Mitsubishi Power and Taiwan’s CTCI Group, formally entering the substantial construction phase in early 2026, with the goal of full commercial operation by 203110. To achieve the extremely rigorous performance indicators specified in the contract (i.e., net plant thermal efficiency of 61.51% or higher LHV, and net plant heat rate as low as 5,852 kJ/kWh), the project selected the Mitsubishi M501JAC heavy-duty gas turbine, which currently boasts the highest thermal efficiency in the global power generation market1.With the significant increase in the proportion of renewable energy sources such as solar photovoltaics and offshore wind power in the grid, large CCPP units like the M501JAC must undertake frequent load ramping and two-shifting tasks to compensate for the intermittency of green energy. This operational mode undoubtedly poses extreme challenges of thermal fatigue and fluid-structure interaction (FSI) to the plant’s high-temperature, high-pressure piping systems2.

1.2 現代化燃氣複循環電廠 NBEP 系統之工程困境 / 1.2 Engineering Dilemmas of NBEP Systems in Modern CCPP

在現代化大型複循環電廠中，非鍋爐外部管線 (NBEP) 構成了電廠的神經與動脈系統，其涵蓋高壓燃料氣體供應線、輔助冷卻空氣迴路，以及各式高溫高壓蒸汽管線。傳統配管工程多採用 1.5D 短半徑對銲彎頭來實現空間上的方向轉折。然而，在緊湊的模組化框架佈局中，傳統 1.5D 彎頭卻暴露出顯著的工程與力學缺陷。其極小的幾何曲率不僅引發極高的應力集中，環向銲接過程所產生的熱影響區 (Heat-Affected Zone, HAZ) 更伴隨微觀組織退化，在頻繁熱循環下極易成為第四型潛變破裂的起始點2。此外，急劇的流體轉向易造成流場嚴重分離，進而誘發流體加速腐蝕與高頻聲學共振，嚴重威脅整體管網的安全2。In modern large-scale combined cycle power plants, the Non-Boiler External Piping (NBEP) constitutes the nervous and arterial system of the plant, covering high-pressure fuel gas supply lines, auxiliary cooling air circuits, and various high-temperature, high-pressure steam pipelines.Traditional piping engineering mostly uses 1.5D short-radius butt-welded elbows to achieve directional turns in space. However, within compact modular frame layouts, traditional 1.5D elbows expose significant engineering and mechanical flaws. Their extremely small geometric curvature not only triggers exceedingly high stress concentration, but the Heat-Affected Zone (HAZ) generated during the circumferential welding process is also accompanied by microstructural degradation, which easily becomes the initiation point for Type IV Creep Cracking under frequent thermal cycling2. In addition, sharp fluid redirection easily causes severe flow separation, which in turn induces Flow-Accelerated Corrosion (FAC) and high-frequency acoustic resonance, seriously threatening the safety of the entire piping network2.

1.3 研究目的與範疇 / 1.3 Research Objectives and Scope

為克服傳統配管工法的物理與冶金極限，本研究旨在深入剖析將大曲率半徑 (3D 及 5D) 之 CNC 連續冷作彎管技術引入通霄二期計畫 NBEP 系統的可行性與力學優勢。研究範疇將結合 2026 年版 ASME B31J 規範之最新應力解耦理論，探討感應加熱彎後熱處理 (IH-PBHT) 對 P91/P92 先進耐熱鋼的微觀組織修復機制4。進一步地，本研究將針對特定管徑級距提出幾何最佳化配置原則：即 (8″~2.5″) 中大管徑適用 3D 冷作彎管規格，(2″含以下) 小管徑適用 5D 冷作彎管規格，以期為現代 CCPP 高能管線設計提供兼具理論支撐與實務操作性的學術論證。To overcome the physical and metallurgical limits of traditional piping methods, this research aims to deeply analyze the feasibility and mechanical advantages of introducing large bend radius (3D and 5D) continuous CNC cold bending technology into the NBEP system of the Tongxiao Phase II project.The scope of the research will combine the latest stress decoupling theory from the 2026 edition of the ASME B31J code to explore the microstructural repair mechanisms of Induction Heating Post-Bending Heat Treatment (IH-PBHT) on P91/P92 advanced heat-resistant steels4. Furthermore, this study will propose geometric optimization configuration principles for specific pipe diameter ranges: applying 3D cold bend specifications for medium-to-large pipes (8″~2.5″) and 5D cold bend specifications for small pipes (2″ and below), with the aim of providing an academic demonstration that balances theoretical support and practical operability for the design of high-energy piping in modern CCPP.

二、 三菱電力 M501JAC 燃氣渦輪機系統特性與管網服役環境 / 2. System Characteristics and Piping Service Environment of Mitsubishi Power M501JAC Gas Turbine

2.1 機組技術演進與 1650°C 強化氣冷系統 (EACS) / 2.1 Unit Technology Evolution and 1650°C Enhanced Air Cooling System (EACS)

三菱 M501JAC 乃是 M501J 系列燃氣渦輪機專為 60Hz 電網市場所設計之先進氣冷式演進版本5。其核心的熱力學突破在於將渦輪進口溫度 (Turbine Inlet Temperature, TiT) 推進至史無前例的 1650°C 境界，藉此實現突破 64% 的聯合循環淨效率5。為了在如此極端的高溫熱通量下維持燃燒室、靜子與轉子葉片的結構完整性，冷卻機制的設計便成為決定機組可靠度的關鍵。早期的 G 型與 J 型機組採用蒸汽冷卻燃燒室，高度依賴底層循環之熱回收鍋爐 (HRSG) 與汽輪機提供冷卻蒸汽，這大幅限制了機組的反應速度6。 The Mitsubishi M501JAC is an advanced air-cooled evolutionary version of the M501J series gas turbine designed specifically for the 60Hz power grid market5. Its core thermodynamic breakthrough lies in advancing the Turbine Inlet Temperature (TiT) to an unprecedented realm of 1650°C, thereby achieving a net combined-cycle efficiency exceeding 64%5. To maintain the structural integrity of the combustor, stator, and rotor blades under such extreme high-temperature heat flux, the design of the cooling mechanism becomes the key factor determining the reliability of the unit. Early G-class and J-class units utilized steam-cooled combustors, relying heavily on the bottoming cycle’s Heat Recovery Steam Generator (HRSG) and steam turbine to provide cooling steam, which significantly limited the reaction speed of the unit6.

相對而言，M501JAC 機型則成功導入了「強化氣冷系統」(Enhanced Air Cooling System, EACS)15。該系統從壓氣機抽出高壓空氣，經由外部 NBEP 管線引導至渦輪冷卻空氣冷卻器 (TCAC) 降溫後，再重新注入燃燒室進行精密冷卻16。此設計不僅大幅簡化了系統架構，賦予機組更靈活的啟動彈性，更在實證中展現出高達 99% 以上的卓越可靠度6。  In contrast, the M501JAC model successfully introduced the “Enhanced Air Cooling System” (EACS)15. This system extracts high-pressure air from the compressor, guides it through external NBEP pipelines to the Turbine Cooling Air Cooler (TCAC) for temperature reduction, and then re-injects it into the combustor for precision cooling16.This design not only greatly simplifies the system architecture and grants the unit more flexible startup capabilities, but has also demonstrated outstanding reliability of over 99% in real-world validation6.

2.2 氫能混燒對 NBEP 管線之挑戰 / 2.2 Challenges of Hydrogen Co-firing to NBEP Piping

通霄二期計畫目前規劃採用天然氣為主要燃料，並同步鋪設雙線海底輸氣管線以確保氣源穩定18。然而，放眼未來淨零排放目標，M501JAC 已被設計為具備「氫能就緒」(Hydrogen-ready) 能力，未來可平滑過渡至混燒 30% 甚至 100% 氫氣的運轉模式5。 The Tongxiao Phase II project currently plans to use natural gas as the primary fuel and will simultaneously lay dual-line submarine gas pipelines to ensure a stable gas source18. However, looking ahead to future net-zero emission goals, the M501JAC has been designed with “Hydrogen-ready” capabilities, allowing for a smooth transition to an operational mode co-firing 30% or even 100% hydrogen in the future5.

由於氫原子的擴散係數極高，極易滲透並滯留於鋼材內部；傳統銲接彎頭之熱影響區因含有極高的殘餘應力，往往成為理想的「氫陷阱」(Hydrogen Traps)，在長期運轉下極易誘發氫脆化 (Hydrogen Embrittlement)2。 Because the diffusion coefficient of hydrogen atoms is extremely high, they easily permeate and remain inside the steel. The Heat-Affected Zones of traditional welded elbows often become ideal “hydrogen traps” due to their high residual stress, making them highly susceptible to inducing hydrogen embrittlement during long-term operation2.

此外，氫氣燃燒的高度敏感性要求燃料氣體供應必須維持絕對穩定；管線內部若因銲道突起而引起流場分離，其波動可能傳導至燃燒室進而引發燃燒動力學不穩定2。因此，具備平滑流場且無銲道弱點的冷作彎管，便成為面對氫能世代的必然選擇。 Moreover, the high sensitivity of hydrogen combustion requires the fuel gas supply to maintain absolute stability; if internal weld beads cause flow separation inside the pipe, the resulting fluctuations may propagate to the combustor, triggering combustion dynamics instability2. Therefore, cold-bent pipes, with their smooth flow fields and lack of weld vulnerabilities, become the inevitable choice for facing the hydrogen generation.

三、 ASME B31J 規範演進與三維應力解耦理論基礎 / 3. Evolution of the ASME B31J Code and the Theoretical Basis of 3D Stress Decoupling

3.1 傳統 ASME B31.1 / B31.3 Appendix D 之歷史與侷限 / 3.1 History and Limitations of Traditional ASME B31.1 / B31.3 Appendix D

過去半個多世紀以來，高能管線的柔性分析高度依賴 ASME B31.1 與 B31.3 的 Appendix D 附錄4。該附錄將管件的幾何特性簡化為單一純量「柔性特徵值」h=T⋅R1/r22，且未細分彎矩作用的空間方向4。 For over half a century, the flexibility analysis of high-energy piping heavily relied on Appendix D of ASME B31.1 and B31.34. This appendix simplified the geometric characteristics of piping components into a single scalar “flexibility characteristic” h=T⋅R1/r22, without differentiating the spatial directions of the applied bending moments4.

對於扭轉力矩，舊規範甚至預設其 SIF 恆等於 1.0 (it = 1.0)4。這種忽略三維耦合效應的經驗法則，在面對現代大管徑及 P91/P92 高合金材料時，往往無法精確反映真實應力分佈，迫使工程師必須增加大量昂貴的彈簧吊架或膨脹環以彌補法規盲區4。 For torsional moments, the old code even assumed a default Stress Intensification Factor (SIF) of 1.0 (it = 1.0)4. This rule of thumb, which ignores three-dimensional coupling effects, often fails to accurately reflect the true stress distribution when dealing with modern large-diameter and high-alloy materials like P91/P92. Consequently, engineers were forced to add numerous expensive spring hangers or expansion loops to compensate for the code’s blind spots4.

3.2 2026 年 ASME B31J 之強制導入與 SIF 矩陣解耦 / 3.2 Mandatory Implementation of 2026 ASME B31J and SIF Matrix Decoupling

鑑於前述侷限，ASME 自 2024 年版起廢除 Appendix D，並預計於 2026 年全面強制導入 ASME B31J 規範4。B31J 的核心變革在於將單一的 SIF 數值解耦為獨立的張量矩陣，明確涵蓋面內 (ii)、面外 (io) 與扭轉 (it) 三維應力強度因子4。在此框架下，配管的位移應力範圍計算被精密修正為 SE=√((iiMi)2+(ioMo)2+(itMt)2)/Z 4。此外，B31J 亦導入了持續應力指數 (SSI) 嚴格防範管材在高溫下的塑性崩塌4。 In light of these limitations, ASME abolished Appendix D starting with the 2024 edition and plans to fully mandate the implementation of the ASME B31J code by 20264. The core revolution of B31J lies in decoupling the single SIF value into independent tensor matrices, explicitly covering in-plane (ii), out-of-plane (io), and torsional (it) 3D stress intensification factors4. Under this framework, the calculation of the piping’s displacement stress range is precisely corrected to SE=√((iiMi)2+(ioMo)2+(itMt)2)/Z 4. Additionally, B31J introduced the Sustained Stress Index (SSI) to strictly prevent the plastic collapse of piping materials under high temperatures4.

3.3 冷作彎管大曲率半徑之指數型應力釋放效應 / 3.3 Exponential Stress Relief Effect of Large-Radius Cold Bends

將彎曲半徑從傳統的 1.5D 擴展至 3D 甚至 5D 後，其柔性特徵值 h 會呈線性上升，進而使三維 SIF 數值呈現指數級下降，無限趨近於直管理想狀態的理論下限 (i≈1.0)4。這項幾何優勢不僅能讓管線輕易通過熱膨脹應力檢核，更賦予了空間侷限的模組佈局前所未有的設計彈性4。 By expanding the bend radius from the traditional 1.5D to 3D or even 5D, its flexibility characteristic h rises linearly, which in turn causes the 3D SIF values to decrease exponentially, approaching the theoretical lower limit of the ideal straight pipe state (i≈1.0)4. This geometric advantage not only allows the pipelines to easily pass thermal expansion stress checks but also grants unprecedented design flexibility to space-constrained modular layouts4.

四、 先進三合一管線工法與冶金力學機制 / 4. Advanced 3-in-1 Piping Methodology and Metallurgical Mechanics

通霄二期計畫為將上述理論優勢具體化，導入了「三合一管線工法」。該工法無縫整合了數控連續冷作彎管、感應加熱彎後熱處理，以及數位履歷追溯系統3。 To materialize the aforementioned theoretical advantages, the Tongxiao Phase II project introduced the “3-in-1 Piping Methodology”. This methodology seamlessly integrates continuous CNC cold bending, induction heating post-bending heat treatment, and a digital traceability system3.

4.1 傳統 1.5D 銲接彎頭之雙重失效機制 / 4.1 Dual Failure Mechanisms of Traditional 1.5D Welded Elbows

傳統彎頭極易引發流體加速腐蝕 (FAC)。當流體因急劇轉向發生邊界層剝離時，會在下游形成狄恩渦流 (Dean Vortices)，持續沖刷管壁導致無預警爆管2。此外，環向銲縫所形成的細晶熱影響區 (ICHAZ)，在長期高溫熱應力交替下極易萌生潛變空洞，最終導致致命的第四型潛變破裂2。 Traditional elbows are highly prone to triggering Flow-Accelerated Corrosion (FAC). When the fluid experiences boundary layer separation due to a sharp turn, it forms Dean Vortices downstream, continuously scouring the pipe wall and leading to unpredicted pipe bursts2. Furthermore, the Fine-Grained Heat-Affected Zone (ICHAZ) formed by the circumferential weld is highly susceptible to initiating creep cavities under long-term alternating high-temperature thermal stresses, ultimately resulting in fatal Type IV Creep Cracking2.

4.2 數控連續冷作彎管之流場優化與 HAZ 消除 / 4.2 Flow Field Optimization and HAZ Elimination via CNC Continuous Cold Bending

採用 CNC 連續冷作彎管達成了方向性轉折處的「無銲化」，徹底消滅了 ICHAZ 弱點，使管線對第四型潛變破裂達到物理機制上的免疫等級2。同時，大曲率半徑亦能平緩引導流體並降低壓力梯度以抑制狄恩渦流，從流體動力學層面徹底拔除 FAC 的好發熱點2。 The use of continuous CNC cold bending achieves a “weld-free” state at directional turns, completely eliminating the ICHAZ vulnerability, rendering the pipeline physically immune to Type IV Creep Cracking2. Simultaneously, the large bend radius can smoothly guide the fluid and reduce the pressure gradient to suppress Dean Vortices, fundamentally uprooting the prone hotspots of FAC from a fluid dynamics perspective2.

4.3 P91/P92 耐熱鋼之感應加熱彎後熱處理 (IH-PBHT) / 4.3 Induction Heating Post-Bending Heat Treatment (IH-PBHT) for P91/P92 Heat-Resistant Steels

針對承受冷作劇烈塑性變形的 P91/P92 鋼材，必須實施精確的 IH-PBHT。完整的熱處理程序包含正常化加熱（超越相變點以重組成核）、快速冷卻，以及回火持溫；此過程能促使細小的 MX 析出相均勻析出，完美恢復鋼材的高溫潛變強度，確保長期的結構安全性2。 For P91/P92 steels subjected to severe plastic deformation from cold bending, precise IH-PBHT must be implemented. A complete heat treatment procedure includes normalizing (heating beyond the phase transformation point for renucleation), rapid cooling, and tempering; this process promotes the uniform precipitation of fine MX phases, perfectly restoring the high-temperature creep strength of the steel and ensuring long-term structural safety2.

五、 幾何規格應用分析：(8″~2.5″) 3D 與 (2″含以下) 5D 冷作彎管 / 5. Geometric Specification Application Analysis: (8″~2.5″) 3D and (2″ and Below) 5D Cold Bends

在實務佈局上，工程團隊依據力學、流體與空間干涉考量，制定了精細的幾何分級策略。In terms of practical layout, the engineering team devised a meticulous geometric grading strategy based on mechanics, fluid dynamics, and spatial interference considerations.

5.1 彎管壁厚減薄機制與 ASME B31.1 規範檢核 / 5.1 Bend Wall Thinning Mechanism and ASME B31.1 Code Verification

冷作彎管在成型時必然發生外弧壁厚減薄27。依據 ASME B31.1 Table 102.4.5 規定，5D 彎管的預估減薄率約為 8%，而 3D 彎管約落在 12.5%~15% 之間29。因 5D 彎管僅需 8% 補償，設計端只需選用市售的標準 Schedule 厚度鋼管即可滿足耐壓需求，有效避免採購客製超厚母管所帶來的昂貴成本與交期延宕29。 Cold bends inevitably experience extrados wall thinning during forming27. According to ASME B31.1 Table 102.4.5, the estimated thinning rate for 5D bends is about 8%, while 3D bends fall between 12.5% and 15%29.Since 5D bends only require an 8% compensation, the design end only needs to select commercially available standard Schedule thickness steel pipes to meet pressure requirements, effectively avoiding the high costs and delivery delays associated with procuring custom ultra-thick mother pipes29.

5.2 (8″~2.5″) 中大管徑 3D 冷彎之空間防干涉與應力平衡 / 5.2 Spatial Anti-Interference and Stress Balance for Medium-Large Diameter (8″~2.5″) 3D Cold Bends

若於中大管徑全面套用 5D 彎曲半徑，龐大的幾何迴轉空間將導致管網在 M501JAC 模組鋼構中發生嚴重的實體干涉4。在此級距採用 3D 冷作彎管，能在空間集約化與應力釋放間取得完美平衡；其大幅降低的位移應力，不僅免去了傳統 U 型膨脹環的需求，更有效卸除了轉移至機殼噴嘴的端點荷重2。 If a 5D bend radius were universally applied to medium-to-large pipe diameters, the massive geometric turning space would cause severe physical interference for the piping network within the M501JAC modular steel structure4.Adopting 3D cold bends for this range strikes a perfect balance between space intensification and stress relief; its significantly reduced displacement stress not only eliminates the need for traditional U-shaped expansion loops but also effectively unloads the terminal loads transferred to the casing nozzles2.

5.3 (2″含以下) 小管徑 5D 冷彎於聲學共振抑制 / 5.3 Acoustic Resonance Suppression for Small Diameter (2″ and Below) 5D Cold Bends

針對流速極快的輔助氣冷系統，小管徑 5D 彎管能有效避免流場在下游激發紊流漩渦脫落。當脫落頻率對應的史卓霍數 (Strouhal Number) 落入 0.4 至 0.5 時，極易引發破壞性的高頻聲學嗡鳴共振2。5D 彎管極度平緩的流線導引，從物理機制上切斷了高頻共振的成因，確保了冷卻流量能均勻無偏差地分配至熱端部件2。 For extremely high-velocity auxiliary air-cooling systems, small-diameter 5D bends effectively prevent the flow field from exciting turbulent vortex shedding downstream. When the Strouhal Number corresponding to the shedding frequency falls between 0.4 and 0.5, it is highly prone to trigger destructive high-frequency acoustic humming resonance2.The extremely gentle streamlined guidance of 5D bends physically cuts off the cause of high-frequency resonance, ensuring that the cooling flow can be distributed to the hot-end components evenly and without deviation2.

六、 專案實務執行、利害關係人決策與三合一工法導入之深度解析 / 6. In-depth Analysis of Project Practical Execution, Stakeholder Decision-Making, and Introduction of 3-in-1 Methodology

將先進的冷作彎管技術與「三合一工法」落實於通霄二期計畫中，不單是配管幾何的改變，更牽動了電廠全生命週期中各方利害關係人的決策邏輯。Implementing advanced cold bending technology and the “3-in-1 Methodology” in the Tongxiao Phase II project is not merely a change in piping geometry; it also influences the decision-making logic of various stakeholders throughout the power plant’s entire life cycle.

6.1 業主對於高能管線銲道與冷作彎管維護管理及營運決策 / 6.1 Owner’s Maintenance Management and Operational Decision-Making on High-Energy Piping Welds vs. Cold Bends

對於台灣電力公司（業主）而言，M501JAC 複循環機組的營運週期長達 30 年以上。在電網必須頻繁配合再生能源進行起停 (Two-shifting) 的運作模式下，高能管網承受了極端的熱疲勞2。在營運決策上，採用冷作彎管直接消除了方向轉折處的銲口，讓業主能大幅豁免歲修時昂貴的風險基礎檢驗 (RBI)。此外，隨著氫能混燒世代的逼近，消除銲接 HAZ 意味著去除了極易誘發氫脆化的「氫陷阱」。此決策從根本上降低了長期維運 (OPEX) 的不確定性，並確保了機組在未來轉型燃氫時的基礎設施延展性2。 For the Taiwan Power Company (the Owner), the operational life cycle of the M501JAC combined cycle unit spans over 30 years. Under an operational mode where the grid must frequently start and stop (two-shifting) to accommodate renewable energy, the high-energy piping network endures extreme thermal fatigue2.In terms of operational decision-making, utilizing cold bends directly eliminates the welds at directional turns, allowing the Owner to largely bypass expensive Risk-Based Inspections (RBI) during annual maintenance. Moreover, with the approach of the hydrogen co-firing era, eliminating the welding HAZ means removing the “hydrogen traps” that easily induce hydrogen embrittlement. This decision fundamentally reduces the uncertainty of long-term operational expenditures (OPEX) and ensures the infrastructure’s extensibility when the unit transitions to hydrogen combustion in the future2.

6.2 EPC承包商設計單位對於考量高能管線彎頭或冷作彎管空間佈置與實務考量 / 6.2 Spatial Layout and Practical Considerations for High-Energy Piping Elbows or Cold Bends by EPC Contractors’ Design Units

以中鼎工程 (CTCI) 等 EPC 統包商的設計單位視角來看，高能管線的空間佈局是一門極具挑戰性的妥協藝術。導入 2026 年版 ASME B31J 後，3D/5D 彎管的超低 SIF 值允許設計師大幅削減彈簧吊架數量4。然而，在 3D 建模實務中，5D 彎管會佔據龐大的迴轉空間，必須在前端佈局初期即強制落實跨專業的防碰撞協調 (Clash Detection)4。同時，考量減薄規範，5D 彎管僅 8% 的減薄率使 EPC 可直接採購市售標準鋼管，省去客製超厚母管的鉅額成本，為設計與採購端帶來極大的實務紅利29。 From the perspective of design units of EPC contractors like CTCI, the spatial layout of high-energy piping is a highly challenging art of compromise. Following the introduction of the 2026 ASME B31J, the ultra-low SIF values of 3D/5D bends allow designers to significantly slash the number of spring hangers4.However, in 3D modeling practices, 5D bends occupy a massive turning space, mandating the strict implementation of cross-disciplinary Clash Detection in the early layout stages4. Meanwhile, considering the thinning specifications, the mere 8% thinning rate of 5D bends allows the EPC to directly procure commercially available standard steel pipes, saving the huge costs of customizing ultra-thick mother pipes and bringing immense practical dividends to the design and procurement sides29.

6.3 以廠務管理者角度來看待對於高能管線銲道與冷作彎管要求 / 6.3 Viewing High-Energy Piping Welds and Cold Bend Requirements from a Facility Manager’s Perspective

站在廠務管理者的第一線立場，機組的「可用率」與「絕對安全」是首要考量。傳統 1.5D 彎頭內部的銲道突起不僅是 FAC 的熱點，更是誘發漩渦脫落的亂流源2。廠務端強烈要求導入 5D/3D 無銲道冷作彎管，因其一體成型與平滑的內壁邊界層，能從物理層面消滅史卓霍數鎖定引發的共振震動，大幅改善廠房內的噪音污染，並杜絕因局部熱斑或流場阻滯導致的非計畫性停機，徹底保障了人員安全與發電收益2。 Standing on the front lines, a facility manager’s primary concerns are the unit’s “availability” and “absolute safety”. The weld bead protrusions inside traditional 1.5D elbows are not only hotspots for FAC but also turbulence sources that induce vortex shedding2.The facility management side strongly demands the introduction of 5D/3D weld-free cold bends. Their unibody construction and smooth inner wall boundary layer can physically eradicate the resonant vibrations triggered by Strouhal number lock-in, significantly improving noise pollution in the plant, and preventing unplanned shutdowns caused by localized hot spots or flow blockage, thereby thoroughly safeguarding personnel safety and power generation revenue2.

6.4 以冷作彎管施作協力廠商角度來看對於高能管線要求及因應策略 / 6.4 Viewing High-Energy Piping Requirements and Countermeasures from the Perspective of Cold Bending Subcontractors

對冷作施作協力廠商而言，將大管徑、超厚壁的 P91/P92 高合金鋼進行精準冷彎，是一項艱鉅的挑戰。廠商必須配備具備增壓推進 (Booster) 與芯棒控制系統的重型數控 (CNC) 彎管機，以將外弧壁厚減薄與橢圓度嚴格壓制在 ASME 法規容許的公差內27。同時，必須克服高強度鋼材冷彎後龐大的「回彈效應」，確保交貨至現場的每一段管件皆能與模組精準對接無誤。For cold bending subcontractors, accurately cold-bending large-diameter, ultra-thick-walled P91/P92 high-alloy steel is a daunting challenge.The manufacturer must be equipped with heavy-duty CNC bending machines featuring booster and mandrel control systems to strictly suppress extrados wall thinning and ovality within the tolerances permitted by ASME regulations27. Furthermore, they must overcome the immense “spring-back effect” of high-strength steel after cold bending to ensure that every pipe segment delivered to the site can align and connect precisely with the modules.

6.5 導入潁璋工程(能彎不銲)之三合一工法管理核心價值優化 / 6.5 Core Management Value Optimization with Ying-Zhang Engineering’s “Bend-instead-of-Weld” 3-in-1 Methodology

在通霄二期等國家級高能管線專案中，導入潁璋工程 (Ying-Zhang Engineering) 所提倡的「三合一工法」（涵蓋 3D/5D CNC 大半徑冷作彎管、IH-PBHT 單管感應亞臨界彎後熱處理，以及 QR Code 雲端數位履歷），是發揮大半徑優勢的唯一解方3。此工法管理的核心價值在於徹底落實「能彎不銲」的設計理念，從源頭將易受流體沖刷與疲勞破壞的銲縫，轉化為連續平滑的母材彎曲段3。 In national-level high-energy piping projects like Tongxiao Phase II, introducing the “3-in-1 Methodology” advocated by Ying-Zhang Engineering (encompassing 3D/5D CNC large-radius cold bending, IH-PBHT single-pipe induction subcritical post-bending heat treatment, and QR Code cloud digital traceability) is the only solution to unleash the advantages of large radii3.The core value of this methodology’s management lies in thoroughly implementing the “bend-instead-of-weld” design philosophy, transforming welds that are susceptible to fluid erosion and fatigue failure into continuous, smooth base-metal bends right from the source3.

這項工法的引進直接化解了當前台灣公共工程極度缺乏頂級 P91/P92 高壓氬銲技師的「缺工危機」2。將大量高難度的現場銲接作業，轉移為工廠內自動化、標準化的彎曲與熱處理製程。同時，每一件出廠的彎管皆具備數位分身 (Digital Twin)，封裝了材料證明、減薄量測與 SIF 數據，大幅優化了現場品保查驗效率與未來的生命週期管理2。 The introduction of this methodology directly resolves the “labor shortage crisis” currently faced by Taiwan’s public works, which severely lack top-tier P91/P92 high-pressure TIG welding technicians2. It shifts a massive amount of highly difficult on-site welding tasks into automated, standardized bending and heat treatment processes within a factory.Meanwhile, every outgoing cold bend possesses a Digital Twin encapsulating material certificates, thinning measurements, and SIF data, which greatly optimizes on-site QA inspection efficiency and future life cycle management2.

6.6 落實以冷作彎管來導入設計(能彎不銲)之核心理念執行與潁璋工程冷作彎管三合一工法之合規 / 6.6 Execution of the “Bend-instead-of-Weld” Design Concept via Cold Bends and Compliance of Ying-Zhang Engineering’s 3-in-1 Methodology

貫徹「能彎不銲」理念的最大門檻，在於如何滿足 ASME 規範對高強度材料的嚴苛檢核。依照 ASME B31.1 對鍋爐外部管線 (BEP) 的規定，傳統銲接需要 100% 的放射線檢測 (RT)31；採用冷作彎管則直接豁免了此項耗時且昂貴的檢驗。潁璋工程的三合一工法在執行上展現了極高的合規性，其熱處理程序無縫接軌 ASME B31.1 Section 129 規範的要求，透過整合供應鏈形成嚴密的品質閉環，確保冷作取代銲接不僅是設計理念，更是具備高度可追溯性與法規正當性的實務作為11。  The highest hurdle in executing the “bend-instead-of-weld” concept lies in how to meet the stringent verifications for high-strength materials required by ASME codes. According to ASME B31.1 regulations for Boiler External Piping (BEP), traditional welding requires 100% Radiographic Testing (RT)31; employing cold bends directly exempts this time-consuming and costly inspection.Ying-Zhang Engineering’s 3-in-1 Methodology demonstrates exceptionally high compliance in execution. Its heat treatment procedures seamlessly align with the requirements of ASME B31.1 Section 129, forming a rigorous quality closed loop through supply chain integration. This ensures that replacing welding with cold bending is not merely a design concept but a practical action featuring high traceability and regulatory legitimacy11.

6.7 解析應變率(5%~20%)放寬 IH-PBHT 適用 / 6.7 Analysis of Strain Limits (5%~20%) and the Application of Subcritical IH-PBHT

這是冷作工法中極為關鍵的冶金技術突破。根據 ASME B31.1 規範 (Table 129.3.1-1)，對於 P91/P92 等潛變增強型鐵素體鋼，當冷成型應變率落在 5% 至 20% 之間時，規範做出了科學性的熱處理放寬11。依據幾何推算，5D 彎管的理論最大拉伸應變率約為 10.0%，3D 彎管約為 16.7%，恰好完美落入此特定管制區間內11。針對此區間，潁璋工程創新採用了「次臨界感應加熱彎後熱處理」(Subcritical IH-PBHT)。此技術將加熱溫度極度精準地控制在 705°C 至 760°C 之間11，確保溫度嚴格低於 P91/P92 的下臨界相變溫度 (Ac1 溫度約為 800°C~845°C)34。 This represents a highly critical metallurgical breakthrough in the cold bending methodology. According to the ASME B31.1 code (Table 129.3.1-1), for Creep Strength Enhanced Ferritic (CSEF) steels such as P91/P92, when the cold-forming strain rate falls between 5% and 20%, the code allows a scientific relaxation in heat treatment11. Based on geometric calculations, the theoretical maximum tensile strain rate for a 5D bend is approximately 10.0%, and about 16.7% for a 3D bend, seamlessly falling within this specific controlled range11.For this specific range, Ying-Zhang Engineering innovatively adopted “Subcritical Induction Heating Post-Bending Heat Treatment” (Subcritical IH-PBHT). This technology controls the heating temperature with extreme precision between 705°C and 760°C11, ensuring the temperature stays strictly below the lower critical phase transformation temperature (Ac1 temperature, which is roughly 800°C~845°C) of P91/P9234.

這種不跨越 Ac1 線的次臨界處理，不僅成功消除了成型過程產生的加工硬化與殘餘應力，更完美保留了原廠預設的回火麻田散鐵基體，以及晶界上關鍵的M23C6 與 MX 奈米級碳氮化物析出相11。這徹底恢復了材料在 600°C 高溫下的長期潛變韌性，使冷彎後的管件具備與完美母材同等的結構強度。 This subcritical treatment, which does not cross the Ac1 line, not only successfully eliminates the work hardening and residual stress generated during the forming process, but also perfectly preserves the original factory-preset tempered martensite matrix, as well as the crucial M23C6 and MX nano-scale carbonitride precipitates on the grain boundaries11. This thoroughly restores the material’s long-term creep toughness at high temperatures of 600°C, granting the cold-bent pipe segments structural strength equivalent to perfect base material.

七、 結論 / 7. Conclusion

本研究透過跨學科的工程分析，全面評估了台灣電力公司通霄發電廠第二期更新改建計畫中，將三菱 M501JAC 燃氣渦輪機之 NBEP 高能管線與「先進冷作彎管三合一工法」進行整合的技術價值。研究結論確切指出，遵循 2026 年版 ASME B31J 規範之三維應力解耦法則，揚棄傳統 1.5D 銲接彎頭而改採大半徑連續冷作彎管，能從根本的物理與冶金機制上消弭熱影響區衍生的第四型潛變破裂，並徹底杜絕流體加速腐蝕與破壞性的聲學共振。Through interdisciplinary engineering analysis, this study comprehensively evaluated the technical value of integrating the NBEP high-energy piping of the Mitsubishi M501JAC gas turbine with the “Advanced 3-in-1 Cold Bending Methodology” in the Taiwan Power Company’s Tongxiao Power Plant Phase II Renewal Project.The research conclusions definitively indicate that following the 3D stress decoupling rules of the 2026 ASME B31J code, discarding traditional 1.5D welded elbows in favor of large-radius continuous cold bends can eradicate Type IV Creep Cracking derived from heat-affected zones from fundamental physical and metallurgical mechanisms, while completely eliminating Flow-Accelerated Corrosion and destructive acoustic resonance.

更具實務指導意義的是，本研究論證了幾何分級配置策略的絕對優勢：More practically significant is that this study demonstrates the absolute advantages of a geometric graded configuration strategy:

  1. 中大管徑 (NPS 8″~2.5″) 採用 3D 冷作彎管： 能在滿足 ASME B31.1 減薄容許度的前提下，取得降低終端旋轉機械載荷與最佳化模組空間佔用的完美平衡。Using 3D cold bends for medium-to-large pipes (NPS 8″~2.5″): Achieving a perfect balance between reducing terminal rotating machinery loads and optimizing modular space occupation, under the premise of satisfying the ASME B31.1 thinning tolerance.
  2. 小管徑 (NPS 2″含以下) 採用 5D 冷作彎管： 以極致的平滑邊界層導引高速氣流，阻絕高頻共振，確保強化氣冷系統流量均勻分佈。Using 5D cold bends for small pipes (NPS 2″ and below): Guiding high-speed airflow with extremely smooth boundary layers to block high-frequency resonance and ensure uniform flow distribution in the enhanced air cooling system.

在專案實務執行面上，導入潁璋工程「能彎不銲」三合一工法，有效緩解了現場銲接缺工危機，為 EPC 統包商與業主創造了極大的採購與維護紅利。特別是針對 5%~20% 應變率區間所實施的精確次臨界 IH-PBHT 技術，在嚴格遵守 ASME 規範的前提下完美重建了 P91/P92 鋼材的微觀潛變韌性。這套融合材料科學、流體動力學與現代前瞻法規的管線系統架構，勢必將為台灣乃至全球未來高階複循環發電廠的安全設計與無碳氫能基礎建設，樹立全新的工程理論典範。On the project’s practical execution front, introducing Ying-Zhang Engineering’s “Bend-instead-of-Weld” 3-in-1 methodology effectively mitigates the on-site welding labor shortage crisis, creating immense procurement and maintenance dividends for the EPC contractor and the Owner.Particularly, the precise subcritical IH-PBHT technology implemented for the 5%~20% strain rate range perfectly rebuilds the microstructural creep toughness of P91/P92 steels while strictly complying with ASME codes. This piping system architecture—integrating materials science, fluid dynamics, and modern forward-looking regulations—is bound to set a brand new engineering theoretical paradigm for the safe design and zero-carbon hydrogen infrastructure of future advanced combined cycle power plants in Taiwan and globally.

參考文獻 / References

  1. 新興火力計畫進展-通霄計畫簡介 – 台灣電力公司, https://www.taipower.com.tw/2289/2363/2400/2401/65069/
  2. 複循環電廠高能管線「彎管工法」整合研究：聲學共振抑制, https://yz-pipe-bending.com.tw/%E8%A4%87%E5%BE%AA%E7%92%B0%E9%9B%BB%E5%BB%A0%E9%AB%98%E8%83%BD%E7%AE%A1%E7%B7%9A%E3%80%8C%E5%BD%8E%E7%AE%A1%E5%B7%A5%E6%B3%95%E3%80%8D%E6%95%B4%E5%90%88%E7%A0%94%E7%A9%B6%EF%BC%9A%E8%81%B2%E5%AD%B8/
  3. 潁璋工程興業有限公司– 冷作彎管, https://yz-pipe-bending.com.tw/
  4. 基於2026 ASME B31J 規範之CCPP 高能管線銲接彎頭與3D/5D 冷作, https://yz-pipe-bending.com.tw/%E5%9F%BA%E6%96%BC-2026-asme-b31j-%E8%A6%8F%E7%AF%84%E4%B9%8B-ccpp-%E9%AB%98%E8%83%BD%E7%AE%A1%E7%B7%9A%E9%8A%B2%E6%8E%A5%E5%BD%8E%E9%A0%AD%E8%88%87-3d-5d-%E5%86%B7%E4%BD%9C%E5%BD%8E%E7%AE%A1%E7%B5%90/
  5. Reliable Gas Turbines – kodeksallc, https://www.kodeksallc.com/mitsubishi-gas-turbines
  6. A WINNING COMBINATION FOR CUSTOMERS, https://www.changeinpower.com/blog/2021/05/25/t-point-2-and-tomoni-technology-a-winning-combination-for-customers/
  7. 通霄發電廠- 維基百科，自由的百科全書, https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%80%9A%E9%9C%84%E7%99%BC%E9%9B%BB%E5%BB%A0
  8. 通霄火力發電廠 – 國家文化記憶庫, https://tcmb.culture.tw/zh-tw/detail?indexCode=Culture_Place&id=332140
  9. 中鼎合約金額創新紀錄－攜手日商勇奪1547億通霄電廠二期統包案, https://www.ctci.com/e-newsletter/CH/485/hot-news/article-01.html
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  11. 基於ASME B31J 規範與冶金損傷機制之CCPP P9x 高能管線「以彎代, https://yz-pipe-bending.com.tw/%E5%9F%BA%E6%96%BC-asme-b31j-%E8%A6%8F%E7%AF%84%E8%88%87%E5%86%B6%E9%87%91%E6%90%8D%E5%82%B7%E6%A9%9F%E5%88%B6%E4%B9%8B-ccpp-p9x-%E9%AB%98%E8%83%BD%E7%AE%A1%E7%B7%9A%E3%80%8C%E4%BB%A5%E5%BD%8E/
  12. 三菱重工獲得6台高效率J 系列燃氣輪機訂單 – 鉅亨網, https://news.cnyes.com/news/id/1807075
  13. Enhanced air cooling achieves 1650 ºC TiT, https://turbomag.mjhassoc.com/enhanced-air-cooling-achieves-1650-oc/
  14. 次世代重型燃氣渦輪機熱回收鍋爐技術比較研究：Mitsubishi Power, https://yz-pipe-bending.com.tw/%E6%AC%A1%E4%B8%96%E4%BB%A3%E9%87%8D%E5%9E%8B%E7%87%83%E6%B0%A3%E6%B8%A6%E8%BC%AA%E6%A9%9F%E7%86%B1%E5%9B%9E%E6%94%B6%E9%8D%8B%E7%88%90%E6%8A%80%E8%A1%93%E6%AF%94%E8%BC%83%E7%A0%94%E7%A9%B6%EF%BC%9Ami/
  15. Analysis of Gas Turbine Heat Integration in Combined Cycle Power, https://www.mandnpower.com/app/download/5555309/Analysis+of+Gas+Turbine+Heat+Integration+in+Combined+Cycle+Power+Plants_PGI2017.pdf
  16. Development of 1650℃ Class Next Generation JAC Gas Turbine, https://power.mhi.com/randd/technical-review/pdf/index_67e.pdf
  17. Enhanced air cooling achieves 1650 ºC TiT, https://www.turbomachinerymag.com/view/enhanced-air-cooling-achieves-1650-oc
  18. 通霄電廠第二期更新改建計畫 – 台灣電力公司, https://www.taipower.com.tw/media/2tmlt0dj/%E9%80%9A%E9%9C%84%E9%9B%BB%E5%BB%A0%E7%AC%AC%E4%BA%8C%E6%9C%9F%E6%9B%B4%E6%96%B0%E6%94%B9%E5%BB%BA%E8%A8%88%E7%95%AB.pdf
  19. 廣納民意中市府會同台電辦理「通霄電廠二期更新改建計畫」公聽會, https://www.taichung.gov.tw/8868/8872/9962/2399180
  20. P91 Heat Treatment – Eng-Tips, https://www.eng-tips.com/threads/p91-heat-treatment.97548/
  21. Mastering ASME B31J Piping Stress Analysis for Plant Integrity, https://epcland.com/asme-b31j-piping-stress-analysis/
  22. Stress Intensity Factor (SIF), Flexibility Factor: ASME B31.3 vs ASME, https://whatispiping.com/stress-intensity-factor-sif-flexibility-factor-asme-b-31j/
  23. ASME B31J-2023 SIF & Flexibility Factor Calculator – YouTube, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lbjQ6OLzWR0
  24. 基於ASME B31J 規範之電廠高能管線預製工法最佳化, https://yz-pipe-bending.com.tw/%E5%9F%BA%E6%96%BC-asme-b31j-%E8%A6%8F%E7%AF%84%E4%B9%8B%E9%9B%BB%E5%BB%A0%E9%AB%98%E8%83%BD%E7%AE%A1%E7%B7%9A%E9%A0%90%E8%A3%BD%E5%B7%A5%E6%B3%95%E6%9C%80%E4%BD%B3%E5%8C%96%EF%BC%9A%E5%A4%A7%E5%8D%8A/
  25. 2026 ASME B31J 規範下冷作彎管曲率半徑(R值)選用準則與實務應用, https://yz-pipe-bending.com.tw/%E9%AB%98%E9%BB%8F%E5%BA%A6%E9%9D%9E%E7%89%9B%E9%A0%93%E6%B5%81%E9%AB%94%E7%AE%A1%E7%B7%9A%E8%BC%B8%E9%80%81%E4%B9%8B%E6%B5%81%E5%9B%BA%E8%80%A6%E5%90%88%E8%88%87%E5%8A%9B%E5%AD%B8%E6%9C%80%E4%BD%B3/
  26. What is P91 welding? – Axiom Heat Treatment, https://axiomht.com/blog/what-is-p91-welding/
  27. 依據ASME B31.1規範對A335 P91/P92管線冷彎研究(Cold Bending, https://yz-pipe-bending.com.tw/%E4%BE%9D%E6%93%9Aasme-b31-1%E8%A6%8F%E7%AF%84%E5%B0%8Da335-p91-p92%E7%AE%A1%E7%B7%9A%E5%86%B7%E5%BD%8E%E7%A0%94%E7%A9%B6-cold-bending-study-of-asme-b31-1-piping-with-a335-p91-p92-material/
  28. 1 102.4.5 Required Wall Thickness – Eng-Tips, https://www.eng-tips.com/threads/b31-1-102-4-5-required-wall-thickness.85539/
  29. asme b31.3 versus b31.1 related to bend thinning allowance 1, https://www.eng-tips.com/threads/asme-b31-3-versus-b31-1-related-to-bend-thinning-allowance.418567/
  30. ASME B31.1 動力配管規範下3≦ R/D ≦5 冷作彎管的設計、製造, https://yz-pipe-bending.com.tw/asme-b31-1-%E5%8B%95%E5%8A%9B%E9%85%8D%E7%AE%A1%E8%A6%8F%E7%AF%84%E4%B8%8B-3%E2%89%A6-r-d-%E2%89%A65-%E5%86%B7%E4%BD%9C%E5%BD%8E%E7%AE%A1%E7%9A%84%E8%A8%AD%E8%A8%88%E3%80%81%E8%A3%BD%E9%80%A0%E3%80%81/
  31. ASME B31.1 Power Piping WPS Requirements Explained, https://wpswelding.com/blog/asme-b31-1-power-piping-weld-procedure-requirements
  32. ASME B31.3 vs B31.1: Process Piping vs Power Piping | HT PIPE, https://www.htpipe.com/standard/comparison/asme-b31-3-vs-b31-1.html
  33. ASME-B31.1.pdf – Future Energy Steel, https://energy-steel.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/ASME-B31.1.pdf
  34. PROPERTIES OF T/P92 STEEL WELD METALS FOR ULTRA, http://nickelalloys.com.br/Metrode%20CD%202011/Technical%20Literature/CrMo%20-%20P92/P92%20paper-IIW%20Conference-Graz.pdf
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